Measurement of asbestos emissions associated with demolition of abandoned residential dwellings
Graphical abstract
Introduction
Abandoned residential dwellings (ARDs) affect community health and well-being. They attract crime, such as drug use and vandalism (Garvin et al., 2013a); harbor rodents, feral dog packs (Lyu, 2015), mold, and insects (Sheffield et al., 2014); and have a high incidence of fires with consequent injuries, deaths, and damage to adjacent structures (Neavling, 2016; USFA/FEMA, 2015). The simple removal of these structures has been demonstrated to significantly reduce crime (Spelman, 1993), possibly reduce gun violence (Jay et al., 2019) and promote health by decreasing anxiety and increasing exercise and active transportation (e.g., walking, running, and bicycling) (Branas et al., 2011; Garvin et al., 2013b). Post-industrial cities across the US struggle with high rates of ARDs. The City of Detroit has the highest percentage of ARDs in the US: >67,000 properties (an estimated 23% of the total housing stock) are abandoned dwellings, of which about 30,000 are residential single-family homes (United States Government Accountability Office, 2011). To address this problem, the City has been engaged in an ambitious effort to demolish these ARDs, with about 18,000 structures demolished over five years, from January 2014 through July 2019 (City of Detroit, n.d.).
The rapid removal of ARDs is complicated by the presence of asbestos in many of these structures. Inhalation exposure to asbestos has been linked to adverse health outcomes including asbestosis (a form of pulmonary fibrosis), lung cancer, and mesothelioma (Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risk to Humans, 2012; Hodgson and Darnton, 2000; N. R. Council, 1971; Attanoos, 2010). While lung cancer and mesothelioma have been extensively studied in workers (Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risk to Humans, 2012; Attanoos, 2010; Albin et al., 1999), there is also evidence of adverse health outcomes from asbestos exposures among children (Wilson et al., 2008; Yano et al., 2009; Hansen et al., 1993; Vinikoor et al., 2010; Ryan et al., 2013; Reid et al., 2013; Kang et al., 2013) and others living in communities near industrial facilities with levels elevated above natural background (Kurumatani and Kumagai, 2008; Chang et al., 1999; Marinaccio et al., 2015; Maule et al., 2007; Ravikrishna et al., 2010; Alexander et al., 2012; US Department of Housing and Urban Development, n.d.). Asbestos has been found in environmental air samples from urban (Selikoff et al., 1972) and rural areas (Royal Society of New Zealand and the Office of the Prime Minister's Chief Science Advisor, 2015; Singh and Thouez, 1985), even in the absence of an obvious industrial source (Pan et al., 2005; Abelmann et al., 2015; Corn, 1994; Luo et al., 2003; Rake et al., 2009). However, there is no evidence that exposure to such ambient background concentrations of asbestos is associated with elevated risk of disease. Asbestos can be classified as serpentine (chrysotile) or amphibole (amosite, crocidolite, tremolite, anthophyllite, actinolite); >99% of all asbestos used in the US was chrysotile, crocidolite or amosite (Virta, 2006) While all types of asbestos are carcinogenic (Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risk to Humans, 2012), the potency with respect to mesothelioma is about 1:100:500 for chrystile:amosite:crocidolite (Hodgson and Darnton, 2000; Berman and Crump, 2008a; Garabrant and Pastula, 2018).
We are unaware of any previous studies of airborne asbestos releases from the demolition of ARDs. Two studies of partially-abated structures found no or minimal increases in airborne asbestos following demolition (Perkins et al., 2007; Wilmoth et al., 1994). Notably, neither of the two demolitions studied by Perkins et al., was a single-family dwelling: one was a 4-story commercial hotel (floor area estimated to be ~18,300 square feet), the other was an entire city block of wooden structures (combined floor area estimated to be ~17,760 square feet). Similarly, the report by Wilmoth et al. focused on asbestos emissions during the demolition of two elementary schools (approximate areas of 22,000 and 24,000 square feet). There was no indication of increased asbestos-related disease following the destruction of the World Trade Center from this short but intense exposure (Nolan et al., 2005). These limited data suggest that demolition may not result in an increased risk of asbestos-related disease to community residents due to the low airborne asbestos emissions and the short duration of exposure, particularly where the asbestos is not in a friable form (Lange, 2001). Furthermore, a large proportion of the released asbestos is likely to be chrysotile, the least potent type of asbestos (Hodgson and Darnton, 2000; Berman and Crump, 2008b), and single-family ARDs are likely to contain a smaller amount of asbestos than commercial and industrial structures (National Research Council, 1971). To date, there are no estimates of the risk of asbestos-related disease stemming from widespread ARD demolition, and no assessment of the association between benefits and cost of abatement and demolition.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) requirements for demolition-related asbestos abatement have undergone periodic revisions. In 1973, the agency stated that the need for asbestos abatement prior to demolition applied to apartment buildings only if they included four or more dwelling units (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 1973), which the agency later updated to specifically exclude residential buildings (including condominiums, cooperatives, apartments, and other multi-dwelling structures) having four or fewer dwelling units (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 1995). This determination was consistent with an earlier National Academy of Sciences finding that “…single-family residential structures contain only small amounts of asbestos…” (National Research Council, 1971). However, in 1995, the EPA issued a clarification stating that ARDs that were to be demolished as part of commercial or public works projects would be classified as a facility and consequently would require abatement (Environmental Protection Agency, 1995). This ruling substantially increased the economic burden on cities seeking to reduce urban blight, as the cost of asbestos abatement significantly increases the cost of ARD demolitions, without a demonstrated improvement in public health, given the NAS's assessment that single-family structures do not contain appreciable asbestos.
Over 93% of the housing stock in Detroit was built before 1978 (Michigan Department of Community Health, 2013), largely before the use of asbestos in residential construction was discontinued in the late 1970s and 1980s. Thus, most homes can be assumed to contain various forms of asbestos-containing materials, including window caulk, insulation, plaster and taping compounds, floor and roofing tiles, and siding. According to the Detroit Land Bank Authority, the average cost of ARD demolitions in 2016 was $12,619, of which $3971 was the cost of asbestos abatement, nearly a third of the overall cost. Based on the information available to date, this expenditure of public funds for asbestos abatement of uninhabited dwellings may not provide a commensurate improvement in public health. Furthermore, the inspection and asbestos abatement process adds additional time to blight removal, impeding the safety and public health benefits achieved through demolition.
To determine concentrations of asbestos present during the demolition of abandoned residential dwellings, we measured airborne asbestos concentrations during the demolition of ARDs which were sufficiently damaged due to fire and/or structural deterioration that asbestos inspection and abatement could not be performed prior to demolition. Such ‘emergency’ demolitions are conducted by Detroit Land Bank Authority under specially-permitted conditions. Samples of airborne asbestos were collected during these demolitions and analyzed using the standard technique used by demolition contractors and regulators, Phase Contrast Microscopy (PCM). This technique has been criticized as it cannot differentiate asbestos fibers from other non-asbestos fibrous materials or distinguish among types of asbestos fibers (Corn, 1994; Dement and Wallingford, 1990). Numerous studies have shown that PCM significantly overestimates the amount of asbestos present; for example, in a study by Burdett and Jaffrey, measurements were conducted in 39 buildings where asbestos was present in the heating systems (Burdett and Jaffrey, 1986). Two hundred thirty-five samples were analyzed by PCM and 13% gave fiber concentrations above 0.01 f/mL. However, a parallel analysis using TEM showed that most of the fibers counted were not asbestos, and, in only one location, did the asbestos fiber concentrations exceed 0.001 f/mL. A similar pattern was reported by Perkins et al. (Perkins et al., 2007). Thus, it appears that PCM may overestimate asbestos concentrations by at least an order of magnitude.
In order to provide a more accurate assessment of asbestos concentrations, we also analyzed samples using Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), which can more definitively identify and quantify asbestos fibers, but is not as frequently used for routine asbestos measurements because of the greater expense. Finally, we compared characteristics of the ARDs in our sample of emergency demolitions that were not abated prior to demolition, with those from a database of abated ARD demolitions in Detroit, randomly sampled, to determine the difference in demolition costs (Franzblau et al., 2019). The risk of adverse health outcomes, specifically lung cancer and mesothelioma, associated with emissions of airborne asbestos from ARDs removed via emergency demolition, was estimated using methods described by Hodgson and Darnton (Hodgson and Darnton, 2000) and Berman and Crump (Berman and Crump, 2008b; Berman and Crump, 2008c). This paper complements our companion paper (Franzblau et al., 2019) describing asbestos bulk sampling results for abated and demolished ARDs in Detroit.
Section snippets
Selection of demolitions for air emissions sampling
We worked with the Detroit Land Bank Authority and participating demolition contractors to identify 25 emergency demolitions planned during the sampling time period, October 2017 to March 2018. Once particular demolitions were identified, we worked directly with contractor staff to determine the specific date and time of each demolition, and arranged to be at the site prior to the start of the demolition to allow sufficient time for sampling setup.
Collection of air samples
Flite 3 air sampling pumps (SKC, Inc) were
Results
The vast majority of the demonlition homes (88%) had 1.5 or more floors (Supplemental Materials, Table S1). The mean total square footage was 1795 ± 873 square feet; 20% of homes were <1000, and 28% ≥ 2000, square feet. All homes were built between 1900 and 1970 (average year 1919). Most (56%) homes, based on visual observations of the researcher staff, did not appear to be fire damaged.
Roughly half (52%) of the 25 demolitions took place during days when the air temperatures was below freezing
Discussion
Demolition of abandoned residential dwellings in post-industrial cities represents a method for revitalization of the urban core. However, it is thought that demolition may release toxic materials, such as asbestos, into the surrounding community. Our study appears to be one of the first to evaluate emergency demolitions of structures without abatement of asbestos in a city where the vast majority of the housing stock is likely to contain asbestos, as indicated by the presence of asbestos in
Conclusions
Our results indicate that asbestos emissions resulting from the demolition of ARDs that likely contained asbestos were negligible and consistent with background levels. In the two cases of demolitions where a single fiber of asbestos was detected, the asbestos fiber was chrysotile, the least hazardous type of asbestos. Calculations of the health risk to community residents from airborne asbestos associated with ARD demolitions showed a lifetime cancer risk of <1 × 10−6, a level that is
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Richard L. Neitzel: Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision, Writing - original draft. Stephanie K. Sayler: Project administration, Investigation, Writing - review & editing. Avery Demond: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing - review & editing. Hannah d'Arcy: Formal analysis, Writing - review & editing. David H. Garabrant: Formal analysis, Writing - review & editing. Alfred Franzblau: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing - review & editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: Dr. Franzblau and Dr. Garabrant have served as expert witnesses in asbestos-related litigation.
None of the other authors have any financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge Brian Farkas, the Detroit Building Authority (DBA), and the Detroit Land Bank Authority (DLBA), as well as the management and workers of the participating demolition contractors, without whose logistical assistance this research would not have been possible. We also wish to thank Dr. Abdul el-Sayed, previously Director of the Detroit Health Department, for his support of the project. Additionally, we wish to thank the following individuals for their assistance
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